Notes

Notes

Notes

¹ Jacob Douglas, “These American Workers Are the Most Afraid of A.I. Taking Their Jobs,” CNBC, November 7, 2019, https://www.cnbc.com/2019/11/07/these-american-workers-are-the-most-afraid-of-ai-taking-their-jobs.html.

² H. W. Geiger, “How Americans See Automation and the Workplace in 7 Charts.” Pew Research Center, April 8, 2019, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/08/how-americans-see-automation-and-the-workplace-in-7-charts/.

³ Marina Mazzucato, “Taxpayers Helped Apple, but Apple Won’t Help Them,” Harvard Business Review, March 8, 2013, https://hbr.org/2013/03/taxpayers-helped-apple-but-app; Paris Marx,. “Love Your iPhone? Don’t Thank Apple, Thank the Government,” Salon, January 6, 2018, https://www.salon.com/2018/01/06/love-your-iphone-donot-thank-apple-thank-the-us-government_partner/.

⁴ James Feigenbaum and Daniel P. Gross, “Automation and the Future of Young Workers: Evidence from the Telephone Operation in the Early 20th Century,” National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 28061, August 2021, https://www.nber.org/papers/w28061

⁵ Warren Brown, “Computers Said to Zap Clerical Jobs,” Washington Post, September 5, 1985, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1985/09/05/computers-said-to-zap-clerical-jobs/0ce2fec4-e9f6-41d9-aa1a-c7d6ee1b50f6/; Michael Handel, “Implications of Information Technology for Employment, Skills and Wages: A Review of Recent Research., SRI International for the National Science Foundation No. P10168, July 2003, 61, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED574891.pdf.

⁶ Anita Balakrishnan, “Self-Driving Cars Could Cost America’s Professional Drivers Up to 25,000 Jobs a Month, Goldman Sachs Says.” CNBC, May 22, 2017, https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/22/goldman-sachs-analysis-ofautonomous-vehicle-job-loss.html.

⁷ James Bessen, International Monetary Fund, “Toil and Technology,” Finance & Development 52, no. 1 (March 2015), https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2015/03/pdf/bessen.pdf; Tess Townshend, “Eric Schmidt Said ATMs Led to More Jobs for Bank Tellers. It’s Not That Simple,” Vox, May 18, 2017, https://www.vox.com/2017/5/8/15584268/eric-schmidt-alphabet-automation-atm-bank-teller.

⁸ Ashley Nunes, “Automation Doesn’t Just Create or Destroy Jobs—It Transforms Them,” Harvard Business Review, November 2, 2021, https://hbr.org/2021/11/automation-doesnt-just-create-or-destroy-jobs-it-transformsthem.

⁹ Joe Berkowitz, “Chippy Comes in Peace: How Robots Will Coexist with Humans in the $800 Billion Restaurant Business,” Fast Company, April 11, 2022, https://www.fastcompany.com/90736134/chippy-comes-in-peace-howrobots-will-coexist-with-humans-in-the-800-billion-restaurant-business; Marwa Eltagouri and Peter Holley, “‘Flippy’ the Fast Food Robot, Temporarily Decommissioned for Being Too Slow,” Washington Post, March 9, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/innovations/wp/2018/03/05/meet-flippy-a-burger-flipping-robotalternative-to-wage-earning-workers/.

¹⁰ David Weil, “Understanding the Present and Future of Work in the Fissured Workplace Context,” Russel Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 5, no. 5 (December 1, 2019), https://www.rsfjournal.org/content/5/5/147.

¹¹ Juliet B. Schor and Steven P. Vallas, “The Sharing Economy: Rhetoric and Reality,” Annual Review of Sociology 47, no. 1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-082620-031411; Sarah Leberstein and Catherine Ruckelshaus, National Employment Law Project, “Independent Contractor vs. Employee: Why Independent Contractor Misclassification Matters and What We Can Do about It,” May 2016, https://www.nelp.org/wpcontent/uploads/Policy-Brief-Independent-Contractor-vs-Employee.pdf.

¹² AI Now Institute, “2019 Report,” December 2019, 10, https://ainowinstitute.org/AI_Now_2019_Report.html; Xavier Parent-Rocheleau and Sharon K. Parker, “Algorithms as Work Designers: How Algorithmic Management Influences the Design of Jobs,” Human Resource Management Review, May 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2021.100838.

¹³ Madeline Claire Elish and Elizabeth Anne Watkins, “Repairing Innovation: A Study of Integrating AI in Clinical Care,” Data & Society, September 2020, https://datasociety.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Repairing-InnovationDataSociety-20200930-1.pdf.

¹⁴ Jay Greene, “Amazon’s Employee Surveillance Fuels Unionization Efforts: ‘It’s Not Prison, It’s Work,’” Washington Post, December 2, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/12/02/amazon-workplacemonitoring-unions/; Athena Coalition, “Packaging Pain: Workplace Injuries in Amazon’s Empire., December 2019, https://2cc07e6d-5f6d-4eca-8f4f7c1165780818.filesusr.com/ugd/a25838_1646a965daf04d3e8b626a4df8d1fcc4.pdf.

¹⁵ Shelby Webb, “Houston Teachers to Pursue Lawsuit over Secret Evaluation System,” Houston Chronicle, May 11, 2017, https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/houston/article/Houston-teachers-to-pursuelawsuit-over-secret-11139692.php; Cathy O’Neil, “Don’t Grade Teachers with a Bad Algorithm,” Wilmington News-Journal, May 15, 2017, https://www.delawareonline.com/story/opinion/2017/05/15/dont-grade-teachers-badalgorithm/101715082/.

¹⁶ Subcommittee on Antitrust, Commercial and Administrative Law of the Committee of the Judiciary, U.S. House of Representatives, “Investigation of Competition in Digital Markets,” October 6, 2020, 11, https://judiciary.house.gov/uploadedfiles/competition_in_digital_markets.pdf.

¹⁷ Kurt Wagner, “Here’s Why Facebook’s $1 Billion Instagram Acquisition Was Such a Great Deal,” Vox, April 9, 2017, https://www.vox.com/2017/4/9/15235940/facebook-instagram-acquisition-anniversary.

¹⁸ Steve Lohr, “This Deal Helped Turn Google into an Ad Powerhouse. Is That a Problem?,” New York Times, September 21, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/21/technology/google-doubleclick-antitrust-ads.html.

¹⁹ Brad Stone, “Amazon’s Expanding with Deal for Zappos,” New York Times, July 22, 2009, https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/23/technology/companies/23amazon.html.

²⁰ Sara Morrison, “How Much Longer Can Google Own the Internet?,” Vox, May 20, 2022, https://www.vox.com/recode/23132580/google-antitrust-search-android-mobile-ads.

²¹ Felix Richter, “Amazon Leads $180-Billion Cloud Market,” February 8, 2022, https://www.statista.com/chart/18819/worldwide-market-share-of-leading-cloud-infrastructure-service-providers/.

²² Pyments, “Amazon’s Share of US eCommerce Sales Hits All-Time High of 56.7% in 2021,” March 14, 2022, https://www.pymnts.com/news/retail/2022/amazons-share-of-us-ecommerce-sales-hits-all-time-high-of-56-7-in2021/.

²³ Simon Kemp, “Digital 2022: Global Overview Report,” DataReportal, January 26, 2022, https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2022-global-overview-report.

²⁴ Tom Wheeler, “Big Tech and Antitrust: Pay Attention to the Math behind the Curtain,” Brookings Institution, July 31, 2020, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/techtank/2020/07/31/big-tech-and-antitrust-pay-attention-to-themath-behind-the-curtain/.

²⁵ “Resolution 5: Commission on the Future of Work and Unions,” AFL-CIO Convention. October 24, 2017, https://aflcio.org/resolutions/resolution-5-commission-future-work-and-unions.

²⁶ Ibid.

²⁷ See Microsoft, “The New Future of Work,” January 2021, available at https://www.microsoft.com/enus/research/project/the-new-future-of-work/; Tam Harbert, “Technology and the Future of Work: Which Way Will We Go?,” Society for Human Resource Management, accessed April 1, 2022, available at https://www.shrm.org/hrtoday/news/all-things-work/pages/technology-and-the-future-of-work.aspx; JPMorgan Chase & Co., “Technology and the Future of Work,” March 2019, accessed April 1, 2022, available at https://www.jpmorganchase.com/institute/research/labor-markets/insight-technology-and-the-future-of-work.

²⁸ See “Technology and the Future of Work,” Deloitte Insights, 2020, available at https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/insights/focus/technology-and-the-future-of-work.html; “The Future of Work,” McKinsey & Company, accessed April 1, 2022, available at https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/future-ofwork; Cognizant, Center for the Future of Work, accessed April 1, 2022, available at https://www.cognizant.com/us/en/latest-thinking/future-of-work.

²⁹ See “The Work Ahead,” Council on Foreign Relations, April 18, 2018, available at https://www.cfr.org/report/the-work-ahead/; “Future of Work,” American Enterprise Institute, accessed April 1, 2022, available at https://www.aei.org/tag/future-of-work/; “Future of Work,” Chatham House, accessed April 1, 2022, available at https://www.chathamhouse.org/topics/future-work; “Workforce of the Future Initiative,” Brookings Institute, accessed April 1, 2022,available at https://www.brookings.edu/product/workforce-of-the-futureinitiative/.

³⁰ See “Managing the Future of Work,” Harvard Business School, accessed April 1, 2022, available at https://www.hbs.edu/managing-the-future-of-work/about-the-project/Pages/default.aspx. The project notes that employers should partner with “policymakers, educators, and nonprofits as well as in collaboration with other companies,” but not labor unions or workers. See also David, David Mindell, and Elisabeth Reynolds, “The Work of the Future: Building Better Jobs in an Age of Intelligent Machines,” MIT Task Force on the Work of the Future, 2020. https://workofthefuture.mit.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/2020-Final-Report4.pdf. Then AFL-CIO secretary treasurer Liz Shuler and a representative from SEIU Local 775 were on the advisory board to the MIT task force, but they were greatly outnumbered by executives from Alphabet Inc., Amazon Worldwide, Custom Rubber Corp., Esquel Group, Evercore, Ford Motor Co., IBM Corp., Liberty Mutual Insurance, Moeilis & Co., PepsiCo, Santander Group, Rethink Robotics, Robert Bosch GMBH, Toyota, and Two Sigma.

³¹ “Resolution 5: Commission on the Future of Work and Unions,” AFL-CIO Convention, October 24, 2017, https://aflcio.org/resolutions/resolution-5-commission-future-work-and-unions.

³² “AFL-CIO Commission on the Future of Work and Unions,” AFL-CIO, September 13, 2019, https://aflcio.org/reports/afl-cio-commission-future-work-and-unions.

³³ “AFL-CIO launches Technology Institute,” AFL-CIO, press release, January 11, 2021, https://aflcio.org/press/releases/afl-cio-launches-technology-institute/.

³⁴ Greg Satell, “Innovative Companies Get Their Best Ideas from Academic Research—Here’s How They Do It,” Harvard Business Review, April 19, 2018, https://hbr.org/2016/04/innovative-companies-get-their-best-ideas-fromacademic-research-heres-how-they-do-it.

³⁵ John F. Sargent Jr., “Federal Research & Development Funding: FY2022.” Congressional Research Service report no. R46869, January 19, 2022, 4 and 6, https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46869.

³⁶ Michael Meyers, “Yes, Government Researchers Really Did Invent the Internet,” Scientific American, July 23, 2012, https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/yes-government-researchers-really-did-invent-the-internet/; Farhad Manjoo, “Obama Was Right: The Government Invented the Internet,” Slate, July 24, 2012, https://slate.com/technology/2012/07/who-invented-the-internet-the-outrageous-conservative-claim-that-every-techinnovation-came-from-private-enterprise.html.

³⁷ Janet Abbate, “How the Internet Lost Its Soul,” Washington Post, November 1, 2019, https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/11/01/how-internet-lost-its-soul/.

³⁸ Andrew Von Ah, “Broadband: Observations on Past and Ongoing Efforts to Expand Access and Improve Mapping Data,” Government Accountability Office, GAO-20-535, June 2020, https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO20-535; David Shepardson, “Commerce’s Raimondo on How the U.S. Will Spend $65 Billion on Broadband,” Reuters, November 9, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/us/commerces-raimondo-how-us-will-spend-65-billionbroadband-2021-11-09/.

³⁹ Tom Huddleston Jr., “Amazon Had to pay federal income Taxes for the First Time since 2016—Here’s How Much,” CNBC, February 4, 2020, https://www.cnbc.com/2020/02/04/amazon-had-to-pay-federal-income-taxes-forthe-first-time-since-2016.html; Chris Isadore, “Jeff Bezos Endorsed Higher Corporate Tax Rates. But It Won’t Cost Him Much,” CNN, April 10, 2021, https://www.cnn.com/2021/04/10/business/jeff-bezos-amazon-corporatetaxes/index.html

⁴⁰ Jesse Eisinger, Jeff Ernsthausen, and Paul Kiel, “The Secret IRS Files: Trove of Never-Before-Seen Records Reveal How the Wealthiest Avoid Income Tax,” ProPublica, June 8, 2021, https://www.propublica.org/article/thesecret-irs-files-trove-of-never-before-seen-records-reveal-how-the-wealthiest-avoid-income-tax.

⁴¹ Gibson. Kate. 2021. “It takes 300 worker salaries to equal the average CEO’s pay, data show.” CBS News. July 14, 2021. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/ceo-pay-300-worker-salaries-compensation/.

⁴² U.S. House of Representatives, 117th Congress. America Creating Opportunities for Manufacturing, PreEminence in Technology, and Economic Strength Act of 2022 (America COMPETES Act). H.R. 4521. House Rules Committee Print 117-31, January 25, 2022 at§10304(b)(2), §10305(b)(2), §10308(e)(2)(A), §10308 (h)(2)(C), https://www.congress.gov/117/bills/hr4521/BILLS-117hr4521eas.pdf; U.S. Senate, 117th Congress, U.S. Innovation and Competition Act of 2021 (USICA), June 8, 2021 at §2104(a)(4)(C), §2401(b)(1)(A), §2401(b)(2), §2404(e)(1)(B), https://www.congress.gov/117/bills/s1260/BILLS-117s1260es.pdf.

⁴³ U.S. Innovation and Competition Act of 2021 at §10308(c)(3) and (9).

⁴⁴ U.S. Economic Development Administration (EDA), U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC), “U.S. Department of Commerce Announces Build Back Better Regional Challenge Applicants, Shows Incredible Enthusiasm for Transformational Investment in Regions across the Country,” press release, October 21, 2021, https://eda.gov/news/press-releases/2021/10/29/build-back-better-applicants.htm.

⁴⁵ EDA DOC, “Build Back Better Regional Challenge Grants Notice of Funding Opportunity,” Funding Opportunity No. EDA-HDQ-ARPBBB-2021-2006976, July 22, 2021, https://eda.gov/files/arpa/build-back-better/ARPABBBRC-NOFO.pdf.

⁴⁶ Braden Campbell, “AFL-CIO 2nd-In-Command Discusses Labor’s ‘Next Frontier,’” Law 360, January 17, 2020. https://www.law360.com/articles/1235233.

⁴⁷ Richard Trumka, AFL-CIO president, “Trumka: We Will Prove We Can Use Technology for Good, Not Greed” (speech given at the Battle of Homestead Foundation, January 25, 2021), https://aflcio.org/speeches/trumka-we-willprove-we-can-use-technology-good-not-greed.

⁴⁸ Ibid.; Liz Shuler, AFL-CIO president, “We Need a Modern Labor Movement That Brings Good Jobs,” Chicago Sun-Times, September 16, 2021, https://chicago.suntimes.com/2021/9/16/22677636/liz-shuler-modern-labormovement-unions.

⁴⁹ Jordan Markley, “CMU Researchers Are Helping Frontline Workers Shape the Technology That Is Shaping Their Work,” Making Possible, Winter 2022, https://makepossible.cmu.edu/impact-stories/workforce-development/.

⁵⁰ “Transit Future of Work Research Project with Carnegie Mellon University,” Transport Workers Union, March 3, 2022, https://www.twu.org/our-campaign-update/.

⁵¹ Nikolas Martelaro et al., “How to Make Sense of Bus Transit Automation: Considerations for Policy Makers on the Future of Human-Automation Teaming in the Transit Workforce,” Carnegie Mellon University Traffic 21, Spring 2022, https://www.cmu.edu/traffic21/research-and-policy-papers/traffic21-policy-brief-22.1—apr-14-002.pdf.

⁵² Jonathan Vanian, “How Unions Are Pushing Back against the Rise of Workplace Technology,” Fortune, April 30, 2019, https://fortune.com/longform/unions-workplace-technology/.

⁵³ National Science Foundation, Division of Information & Intelligent Systems, “Upskilling Workers and ReDesigning Workplaces for the Future of the Hospitality Industry,” NSF Award abstract no. 2128954, August 24, 2021, https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=2128954&HistoricalAwards=false.

⁵⁴ Markley, “CMU Researchers Are Helping.”

⁵⁵ “Union Membership Rate Declines in 2021, Returns to 2019 Rate of 10.3 Percent,” Bureau of Labor Statistics, January 25, 2022, https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2022/union-membership-rate-declines-in-2021-returns-to-2019-rate-of-10-3-percent.htm.

⁵⁶ “Union Election Petitions Increase 57% in the First Half of Fiscal Year 2022,” National Labor Relations Board, press release, April 6, 2022, https://www.nlrb.gov/news-outreach/news-story/union-election-petitions-increase-57-in-first-half-of-fiscal-year-2022.

⁵⁷ Margaret Poydock et al., “Data Show Major Strike Activity Increased in 2021 but Remains below Pre-Pandemic Levels,” Economic Policy Institute, February 23, 2022, https://www.epi.org/publication/2021-work-stoppages/; Johnnie Kallas, Leonardo Grageda, and Eli Friedman, “Labor Action Tracker Annual Report 2021.” Cornell University ILR School, February 21, 2022, https://www.ilr.cornell.edu/worker-institute/blog/reports-andpublications/labor-action-tracker-annual-report-2021.

⁵⁸ Megan Brenan, “Approval of Labor Unions at Highest Point since 1965,” Gallup, September 2, 2021, https://news.gallup.com/poll/354455/approval-labor-unions-highest-point-1965.aspx.

⁵⁹ Ted Van Green, “Majorities of Adults see Decline of Union Membership as Bad for the Country and Working People,” Pew Research Center, February 18, 2022, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2022/02/18/majorities-ofadults-see-decline-of-union-membership-as-bad-for-the-u-s-and-working-people/.

⁶⁰ Gerrit De Vynck, Nitasha Tiku, and Jay Greene, “Six Things to Know about the Latest Efforts to Bring Unions to Big Tech,” Washington Post, April 30, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/01/26/tech-unionsexplainer/.

⁶¹ Hamilton Nolan, “The Failure to Unionize the Tech Industry Will Eat the Labor Movement Alive.” In These Times, August 26, 2020, https://inthesetimes.com/article/union-tech-industry-labor-2020.

⁶² April Glaser, “Amazon Now Employs Almost a Million People in the U.S.—Or One in Every 169 Workers,” NBC News, July 30, 2021, https://www.nbcnews.com/business/business-news/amazon-now-employs-almost-1-million-people-u-s-or-n1275539.

⁶³ Chris Isadore and Sara O’Brien, “Amazon and Starbucks Union Votes Are Small Wins—but Important Ones—for US Labor,” CNN, April 13, 2022, https://www.cnn.com/2022/04/13/business/amazon-starbucks-unionvotes/index.html; Annie Palmer, “Amazon Illegally Interfered in Alabama Warehouse Vote, Union Alleges,” CNBC, April 7, 2022, https://www.cnbc.com/2022/04/07/amazon-illegally-interfered-in-alabama-warehouse-vote-unionalleges.html.

⁶⁴ Sam Harnett, “Tech Workers Organizing Is Nothing New . . . but Them Actually Forming Unions Is,” KQEQ, June 2, 2021, https://www.kqed.org/news/11874325/tech-worker-organizing-is-nothing-new-but-actually-formingunions-is; Bobby Allyn, “Google Workers Speak Out about Why They Formed a Union: ‘To Protect Ourselves,’” NPR, January 8, 2021, https://www.npr.org/2021/01/08/954710407/at-google-hundreds-of-workers-formed-a-laborunion-why-to-protect-ourselves; Kate Conger, “Hundreds of Google Employees Unionize, Culminating Years of Activism,” New York Times, January 4, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/04/technology/google-employeesunion.html.

⁶⁵ Noam Scheiber and Karen Weise, “Microsoft Pledges Neutrality in Union Campaigns at Activision,” New York Times, June 13, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/13/business/economy/microsoft-activision-union.html; Tripp Mickle and Noam Scheiber, “Apple Workers at Maryland Store Vote to Unionize, a First in the United States,” New York Times, June 18, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/18/technology/apple-unionmaryland.html; “Workers United, Communication Workers of America Join Forces on Apple Retail,” Communication Workers of America, press release, June 8, 2022, https://cwa-union.org/news/releases/workersunited-communications-workers-of-america-join-forces-on-apple-retail.

⁶⁶ Liz Shuler, “Big Tech Organizing,” New York Times, January 17, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/17/opinion/letters/lincoln-alcohol.html.

⁶⁷ “U.S. Department of Commerce Appoints 27 Members to National AI Advisory Committee,” US Department of Commerce, press release, April 14, 2022, https://www.commerce.gov/news/press-releases/2022/04/us-departmentcommerce-appoints-27-members-national-ai-advisory.

⁶⁸ Keith Wagstaff, “As Amazon Union Vote Starts, AFL-CIO’s Tech Think Tank Considers Future of Labor,” Mashable, February 8, 2021, https://mashable.com/article/amazon-union-afl-cio-think-tank.

⁶⁹ Jonathan Vanian, “How Unions Are Pushing Back against the Rise of Workplace Technology,” Fortune, April 30, 2019, https://fortune.com/longform/unions-workplace-technology/; Regina Garcia Cano, “Unionized MGM Workers in Las Vegas Ratify Contract,” Associated Press, June 19, 2018; https://apnews.com/article/cd3f3d9ab6244b1e877cb0178aae8ce1; “Las Vegas Union, MGM Reach Tentative Deal for a New Contract,” CNBC, June 4, 2018, https://www.cnbc.com/2018/06/04/las-vegas-union-mgm-resorts-reacha-tentative-deal-for-a-new-labor-contract.html.

⁷⁰ Devin O’Connor, “MGM Resorts Might Replace Certain Jobs with Automated Technologies,” Casino.org, March 6, 2019, https://www.casino.org/news/mgm-resorts-ruffles-union-feathers-with-job-cuts-automated-services/.

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